Adolescent Project - Mr. Engel
Delinquency
What is adolescent delinquency?
Who is the adolescent delinquent?
What crimes do adolescents commit?
What are some predictors of adolescent delinquency?
What programs are available to prevent and to treat delinquency?
What is delinquency?
Will delinquency become a long-term problem?
Some facts about the prevalence of adolescent delinquent behavior:
What to look for in adolescents that may be potential delinquents:
Prevention and Treatment:(McCord, 1993)
Although long-term delinquency may be a symptom of a psychological problem, some ways
found to help prevent the early onset of delinquent behaviors are:
If the characteristics mentioned above are already apparent, treatment is the next step.
Homeless youth
A Typology of Runaway and Homeless Youth in the United States
Situational Runaways
Throwaways
Systems
The Victimization of Homeless Adolescents
Where are homeless families and adolescents living?
What do homeless adolescents do for money?
The Growing Trend of Homelessness
Many people still think of homeless transients as alcoholic and/or mentally disabled loners.
Policy Issues and Programs
Which Adolescents Cease Delinquent
Behavior and Which Continue?
Stephanie Freyvogel
What do adolescent delinquents look like?
There are two types of adolescent delinquents. Some have an early onset of delinquency
which continues on through adolescence and frequently into adult criminal lives. Other
delinquents have no trouble with the law before adolescence. They become involved in
delinquency during their teenage years, but rarely continue this behavior into adulthood
(Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 1997). These two group have significantly different characteristics,
including family traits and gender. Adolescents can be divided into these two groups with
several factors predicting their delinquency.
What do the early adolescent delinquents look like?
This group of delinquents is mostly male, and more genetically influenced (Steinberg, 1996).
They have histories of aggressive and violent behavior beginning as early as age eight. A
number of them suffer from attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder in childhood. This causes
aggressiveness and an inability to concentrate. A significant amount also have what
researchers consider a hostile attributional bias. This means they interpret ambiguous
situations with their peers as actually being hostile. This leads them to be unpopular among
their peers and have problems in school. These early onset offenders often come from
disorganized families with hostile, neglectful parents (Wicks-Nelson 7 Israel, 1997). These
parents failed to instill in their children proper standards of behavior. The families also tend to
be of a low socioeconomic status and have experienced divorce. Adolescent delinquents who
begin at an early age commit more serious and violent crimes during their delinquency. They
are also more likely to become chronic offenders and continue on with their delinquent
behavior after adolescence.
What do the late onset group look like?
This group of delinquents contains an equal amount of males and females, and is more
environmentally influenced. These adolescents have learned the norms and standards of
society, so they are far better socialized. To this adolescent, the peer group is essential
(Stattin & Magnusson, 1995). They tend to be popular among their peers and their delinquent
activities usually occur in peer situations. Thus, delinquent activities often coincide with the
amount of peer pressure applied. These adolescents often come from families where the
parents do not carefully monitor them. This distant relationship makes the child more
susceptible to peer pressure. Parental neglect also leads to associations with deviant peers
(Steinberg, 1996). Most of these adolescents' crimes do not develop into serious criminality
and they are unlikely to violate the law after adolescence.
All adolescent delinquents cannot be put into the same category. There are two distinct
groups which have different characteristics, depending on the age of onset. These must be
taken into consideration to understand the concept of delinquency in adolescence.
For additional information:
Henggler, S. W., (1989). Delinquency in Adolescence. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Herbert, M., (1987). Conduct Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence. New York:
Wiley and Sons.
Wadsworth, M. E., (1979). Roots of Delinquency, Infancy, Adolescence and Crime.
New York: Barnes and Noble.
Delinquency
Mark Savino
Definition: Delinquency is the failure to do what duty or law requires.
Factors identified as contributing to delinquent behavior: Delinquents sometimes feel
justified in breaking the rules because the system is so much against them (Schmolling,
Youkeles, and Burger, 1993).Socialized subgroup-The socialized subgroup describes youths
who associate with a delinquent subgroup and accept the values of that subgroup. This
category is defined by characteristics such as (1) has bad companions, (2) steals in company
with others, (3) belongs to a gang, or (4) stays away from home and school. These individuals
are also described as experiencing little distress or psychopathology, and little difficulty in
relating to peers (Wicks-Nelson and Israel, 1997).
How serious is delinquency?
As Table 8-4 illustrates, there is little doubt that juvenile crime is a serious problem (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1994).
TABLE 8-4 Cases Disposed by Juvenile Courts for Youths Ages
10-17
Reasons for Referral
1983
1987
1991
Violent offences
55,000
67,000
103,000
Property offences
451,000
498,000
577,000
Delinquency offences
524,000
590,000
658,000
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the
United States: 1994(114th edition). Washington, DC, 1994.
Summary: The general public does not fully realize that juveniles, defined by most states as
persons under 18, commit a large percentage of serious crimes. During the mid-1980's, persons
under 18 accounted for about one out of every three arrests for robbery, about half of all
arrests for property crimes, and about one of six arrests for rape. Each year, more than a million
juveniles are arrested by the police in this country (Inciardi, 1987).
References :
Inciardi, J.A. (1987). Criminal justice (2nd ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Schmolling, Youkeles, and Burger. (1993). Human services in contemporary america
(3rded.). California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1994 (114th ed.).
Washington, DC, 1994.
Wicks-Nelson and Israel. (1997). Behavior disorders of childhood (3rd ed.). New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Further Reading
Anderson, D.C. (1990, Oct. 15). Crime in New York, compared. New York Times, p. A18.
Could My Adolescent Have Conduct
Disorder?
Megan McCahill
What is conduct disorder?
Conduct disorder is a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that violates the
rights of others and important age appropriate social norms (Wicks-Nelson &
Israel, 1997). It is often proceeded by oppositional defiant disorder or attention
deficit and hyperactivity disorder that worsens through childhood and becomes
re-diagnosed as conduct disorder in adolescence. Conduct disorder includes a
wide range of aggressive behaviors such as;
Physical hitting, kicking, vandalism
Verbal criticism, putdowns, defiance, non-compliance
Emotional lack of affection, manipulation of affection
Attitudinal negative, defiant
Prevalence of conduct disorder (Earls, 1994).
4 to 6 percent of the of the general population is diagnosed with conduct
disorder.
33 to 75 percent of clinical referrals were for conduct disorder behavior
Boys show more association with conduct disorder than girls, 4:1.
Diagnosis of conduct disorder (Frances, First, Pincus, & Widiger, 1994).
The DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder requires that three or more
types of these behaviors have occurred in the last twelve months and at least one
type occurring in the last six months;
Aggression to people and animals
Destruction of property
Deceitfulness or theft
Serious violations of rules
Treatment of conduct disorder
The following list includes some of the treatments available for treating conduct
disorder, but it is not comprehensive. To read more information on the treatment of
conduct disorder, please refer to the reference list at the end of the paper.
Parent training
Social problem solving skills training
Family interventions
Institutional and community based programs
Behavioral therapy
Parent tips for managing children with conduct disorde
Positive problem solving
Relaxation or calming responses
Positive imagery and reframing
Attacking non-productive thinking patterns
Conclusion
Conduct disorder is on of the most commonly referred problems among
adolescents. Aggression, non-compliance, and anti-social behavior characterize it.
Great improvements can be made with treatment such as, parent training.
References
Earls, F. (1994). Oppositional Defiant and Conduct Disorders. In Rutter,
M., Taylor, E., & Herserve, L. (Eds.) Child and Adolescent psychiatry:
Modern Approaches. Laden: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Frances, A., First M.B., Pincus, H.A., & Widiger, T. (1994). Diagnostic
Criteria From DSM-IV. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric
Association.
Horne, A.M., & Sayger, T.V. (1990). Treating Conduct and Oppositional
Defiant Disorders. New York: Pergamon Press.
Wicks-Nelson, R., & Israel, A.C. (1997). Behaviors of disorders of
Childhood. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Conduct Disorder and it's Link to Juvenile
Delinquency
Alyson Baldwin
What is Conduct Disorder?
Individuals and professionals use various terms to describe conduct disorder.
Parents and care givers often describe these children as aggressive, oppositional,
disruptive and delinquent. Many professionals use criteria set by the American
Psychological Association's Diagnostic Statistical Manual - IV (DSM-IV) to
describe and diagnosis conduct disorder. This text sets diagnostic criteria for
psychological disorders across the life span.
The DSM-IV recognizes four categories of overt behavior seen in children and
adolescents with this disorder. These categories are aggression to people and
animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft and serious violations of
rules. Each category has a specific list of behaviors. To view a more complete list
of the DSM-IV's criteria contact www.mentalhealth.com/dis1/p21-ch02.html.
Three behaviors from this detailed list must occur during a one year period and one
behavior must have occurred in the past six months to be clinically diagnosed with
conduct disorder. According to Wicks-Nelson and Israel (1997), "An essential
feature of the diagnosis...is a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that
violates the basic rights of others and major age appropriate societal norms" (pg.
178).
Is Conduct Disorder Linked to Juvenile Delinquency?
Literature exists that connects conduct disorder to juvenile delinquency and future
adult criminality. Durand and Barlow (1997) state that, "the lifelong pattern of
antisocial behavior experienced by this group is evident in the fact that young
children who display antisocial behavior are likely to continue to show these
behaviors as they grow older" (pg. 385). Boyle and Offord (1990) state that,
"...about 50% of children with conduct disorder...will exhibit antisocial behavior as
adults" (pg. 227). A study conducted by Jennifer L. White and colleagues deals
with possible predictors of conduct disorder and adolescent delinquency. White et
al. (1990) found that, "...children who exhibit stable and pervasive antisocial
behavior at age 11 appear to be at greatest risk for recidivistic juvenile delinquency
at age 15" (pg. 520).
Research suggests the existence of numerous causes for juvenile delinquency. Child
abuse and neglect have been linked to delinquency (Widom, 1991; Zingraff, Leiter,
Myers & Johnsen, 1993), as well as, an adolescent's attitude towards attaining
social status and success (Hurrelmann & Engel, 1992). Conduct disorder should
not be seen as an absolute path to juvenile delinquency. However, conduct
disorder is a risk factor for juvenile delinquency.
For Further Readings:
www.counseling.org/ctonline/conduct.htm
www.aacap.org/factsfam/conduct.htm
www.ncjj.org/
www.ncjrs.org/ojjhome.htm
Juvenile Delinquency and the Justice
System
Laurie A. Schneider
What is juvenile delinquency?
Juvenile delinquency refers to conduct which violates the law only when committed
by children. Truancy, running away, and petty theft are examples of juvenile
delinquency ( Whitehead, 1990). This definition varies from jurisdiction to
jurisdiction.
Who is a juvenile?
Majority of states, D.C., and the Federal government see juveniles as under
18 years of age (Davidson, et al., 1990).
Connecticut, New York, North Carolina, and Vermont, the age is 16 or
younger (Davidson, 1990).
In the eight remaining states, the age is seventeen or younger (Davidson, et
al., 1990).
What kind of court processes do these juveniles go through?
62% of youths taken into custody were referred to juvenile court
(Whitehead, 1990).
30% were handled by the police and then released (Whitehead, 1990).
1% was taken to welfare agencies (Whitehead,1990).
5% were referred to adult criminal courts (Whitehead, 1990).
In juvenile court, what can the judge decide?
Put the youth in detention.
Send the youth home.
File a court petition.
Transfer the youth to an adult court system.
Juveniles and Their Justice
Sara Driscoll
The judicial process
For a juvenile to receive the best and most fair treatment from their child welfare
agency and court, the following must take place:
A judge and a staff identified with and capable of carrying out a non-punitive
and individual service.
Sufficient facilities available in the court and the community to insure:
That the dispositions of the court are based on the best available
knowledge of the needs of the child.
That the child, if he needs care and treatment, receives these through
facilities adapted to his needs and from persons properly qualified and
empowered to give them.
That the community receives adequate protection.
Procedures designed to insure:
That each child and his situation is considered individually.
That the legal and constitutional rights of both parents and child, and
those of the community are duly considered and protected (Costin,
1979).
The involved personnel
In our democratic society, the laws in each state and their lower courts are
enforced by varying bodies of government officials. However, there are certain
areas of the law that are created for children's interests. They compose a major
network within the justice system (Bremner, 1974). The most obvious of the
network includes a judge. In addition to the judge, a probation officer, child welfare
agency or social service agency, and depending on the case, a physician,
psychologist, and a psychiatrist. According to the specifics of the case, a
representative from the intended treatment facility will also attend court.
In addition to the network of government aids, certain states now include child
advocates. A child advocate or advocacy program ensures that human services and
the courts become responsive and accountable to children (Paul et al., 1977). Child
advocates see children as individuals with a potential for growth that is influenced
by their interactions in their environment. Child advocacy is seen as a way to
negotiate for the child when they are unable to do it for themselves (Paul et al.,
1977).
Available facilities
Shelters: a shelter is a non-security facility that is provided in temporary
foster homes or open institutions (Costin, 1979). These facilities are made
available for juveniles that have been abandoned or neglected by their
families until further notice from the courts.
Detention Homes: a detention home means that the child is in secure
custody. These facilities are for juveniles that have committed a delinquent
act or status offense (Costin, 1979).
Jail: jails are used due to the fact that a shortage of detention homes and and
shelters have become a common occurrence. Also, jails are used because
rural areas often times have no shelters and detention homes (Costin, 1979).
References:
Bremner, R.H., Katz, S.N., Marks. R.B., & Schmidt, W.M. (Eds.). (!974).
Care of Dependent Children in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth
Centuries. New York: Arno Press.
Costin, L.B. (1979). Child Welfare: Policies and Practice (2nd ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Paul, J.L., Nuefeld, G.R., & Pelosi, J.W. (1977). Child Advocacy Within
the System. New York: Syracuse University Press.
Correctional Facilities for Delinquents
Erika Walter
What types of correctional facilities are delinquents usually sent to after
committing a crime (Thornton 1992)?
detention centers
shelter
public and private training schools
reception-diagnostic centers
work camps
boot camps
What are some differences between these types of facilities?
Detention centers are short-term facilities that are used as a temporary
holding place for juveniles. These centers also use physical restraint to keep
the juveniles from leaving (Thornton, 1992).
Shelters are similar to detention centers except that there is no physical
restraint placed on the juveniles (Thornton, 1992).
Public/Private training schools are long-term facilities. Most schools employ
treatment strategies for the juveniles, although some do not (Thornton,
1992).
Reception-Diagnostic Centers are designed to classify delinquents before
they are assigned to a particular correctional facility. These centers are
usually short-term (Thornton, 1992).
Work camps treat juveniles who commit less serious crimes. Most camps
are located in state parks or forests (Thornton, 1992).
Boot camps expose juveniles to a military form of discipline. These camps
usually are assigned to juveniles with major crimes (Thornton, 1992).
Where are most juveniles held among these institutions (Thornton 1992)?
public juvenile facilities
number of
facilities
number of
juveniles
Detention Center
422
18,041
Shelters
63
646
Reception-diagnostic center
19
1,424
Training Schools
201
27,823
Boot and Work camps/others
395
8,216
Do these institutions have any influence on rehabilitating delinquents?
The purpose for corrective institutions is to rehabilitate youths so that they can lead
productive lives when they leave institutions, thereby lowering their chance of
returning (Joseph, 1995). Although some treatments in some institutions have an
effect on certain adolescents, most have little (if any) effect on decreasing deviant
behavior. Most of these treatments employed in institutions do not focus on the
main problems of delinquent adolescents, such as family dysfunction, low income,
little education, and many others (Thornton 1992). For this reason, many
treatments are unsuccessful.
For additional information:
Bishop, Donna. "The Transfer of Juveniles to Criminal Court: Does it Make
a Difference?" Crime and Delinquency 42: 171-191.
Congressional Digest. "Juvenile Crime" Vol. 75, number 8-9.
Jones, Mark. "Do Boot Camp Graduates Make Better Probationers."
Journal of Crime and Justice. 19: 1-13
Boot Camps
Adrienne Brook
What are boot camps?
Boot camps are a relatively new addition to the intermediate sanctions menu. They
consist of relatively short period of incarceration in a quasi- military environment,
followed by a period of supervision in the community. In 1992, Congress
authorized the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) to
establish two model juvenile boot camps emphasizing education and other services.
The growth of these such programs are due, in part, to the positive response of the
citizens who like seeing offenders toeing the line, and by legislators who represent
them.
Why boot camps for juvenile offenders?
"In some respects, the harsh image of a boot camp regimen appears at odds with a
juvenile justice system that, at least in theory, tends to emphasize 'rehabilitation'
over punishment or public safety". However, boot camps offer a particularly
attractive package--the chance to pursue rehabilitative goals in an environment that
does not appear to coddle delinquents.
Who are boot camps designed for?
Most States limit boot camp programs to first time offenders who did not have
outstanding felony detainers or warrants. Boot camp programs appear to have a
focus more easily identified with adults than juveniles. Despite this, in many states
young offenders under the age of 18 are considered adults and have been placed
within the adult boot camp population.
What are the goals and philosophies?
There are three primary reasons for implementing correctional boot camp
programs: reducing crowding, reducing costs, and lowering recidivism. Other goals
include developing work skills, providing a safe prison environment, deterrence,
education, rehabilitation, and drug treatment. Programs goals may differ.
Do juvenile boot camps really work?
For the most part, juvenile corrections practitioners have been slow to embrace the
boot camp program concept. They feel juveniles need an atmosphere of challenge
and experimental learning rather than military drills, ceremony and exercise.
However, because boot camp programs have support from the public, some
juvenile justice agencies are feeling pressure to develop and implement them.
What lies ahead for the future of juvenile boot camps?
Some States are combining elements of the boot camp program philosophy with
experiential or adventure programming and are relabeling the programs with names
like "stress challenge." Other States are looking for ways to translate the strict adult
boot camp philosophy into programs that will work well with juveniles. In any case
an effective intervention must take place to prevent first-time offenders from
penetrating further into the juvenile justice system and especially to prevent juvenile
offenders from graduating and ending up in the adult system.
References
Bourque. B., Cronin, R., Pearson, F., Felker, D., Han, M., and Sarah Hill
(1996). Boot camps for juvenile offenders: An implementation
evaluation of three demonstration programs. U.S. Department of Justice
Zachariah, J. (1996). An overview of boot camp goals, components, and
results. US. Department of Justice
Substance Abuse In Adolescence
Sonya Mehta
What is drug use?
Drugs are any substances that alter the central nervous system and states of
consciousness (Hanson, 1995). Drug use most commonly starts out with nicotine,
then goes to alcohol and illicit drugs, such as marijuana, cocaine, and LSD.
Individuals engage in drug use during the weekends and some evenings during the
week (Dusek, 1993). Substance abuse is taking drugs to the limit so they cause
social or medical harm to the person. The frequency of drug use increases and one
begins to maintain their own supplies. At this stage, the person may engage in drug
use alone as well as with friends. Minor conflicts may arise with parents, school
staff, and the police.
How many adolescents use drugs?
Almost 15.4% used cocaine or crack yearly (Dusek, 1993).
About 9.6% of youths use stimulants for nonmedical and medical reasons
(Dusek, 1993).
Approximately 3.9% engage in the daily use of marijuana (Dusek, 1993).
About 22% of adolescents are regular smokers (Dusek, 1993).
Between 25-35% drink to the point of intoxication each month (Hanson,
1995).
Why do adolescents use drugs?
pleasure
stress reliever
peer pressure
enhance religious or mystical experiences
relieve pain and symptoms of illness
Does drug use promote another type of delinquency?
Cohen, who wrote Delinquent Boys:The Culture of the Gang(1955), believed
that there is a correlation between delinquent behavior and drug use as well as drug
abuse, primarily in lower-class peer groups(Hanson, 1995). Drug use can be
associated with crime. Drugs may activate criminal behavior, especially if they are
taken to help the person commit the crime. For instance, money to buy drugs may
be gained through crime. Drugs have been associated with gang organizations and
other such related activities. Some gangs deal drugs and use this money to support
their activities.
Prevention/Treatment:
Two major ways of preventing drug use is by educating the public about drug use
and structuring the environment to eliminate factors so the availability of drugs will
be limited. Education in school systems and within the community are essential to
prevent drug abuse from occurring. One way is to give positive alternatives to
adolescents. More emphasis is placed on extracurricular activities, volunteer
services, recreational activities, and participation in cultural events. Detox and
abstinence programs are still used to get the addict to stop totally or at least reduce
the use of drugs.
Conclusions:
Drug use is most commonly seen in adolescents. Adolescents use drugs for a
variety of reasons. Usually, those that engage in drug use do so for social use,
which takes place with friends. However, it can lead to various types of
delinquency as well as promote other kinds of delinquency. Methods of prevention
and treatment are useful and can be quite successful. If these methods are
incorporated into schools, communities, and homes, drug use can decrease greatly
and lead an individual to abstinence.
For additional information on substance abuse please view these other
websites:
http://www.commnet.edu/QVCTC/student/GaryOKeefe/drugfacts.html
http://mason.gmu.edu/~nroper
http://www.health.org/youth.htm
Who Is At Risk for Substance Use?
Leslie Markowitz
Adolescence is a known time for experimentation with many different things.
Alcohol and drugs are two of these. It is important to keep in mind that not all
adolescents use drugs and alcohol in a regular and problematic way. Most just
experiment or use occasionally (Steinberg, 1993). There are risk factors for
problematic use and those that use alcohol and drugs in a regular and deviant
manner might be subject to these.
What are the major risk factors?
In Steinberg's text, Adolescence, he has identified four main sets of risk factors
which could be attributed to substance abuse problems. They are:
transition-proneness
personality characteristics
family relationships
peer relations
Transition-proneness
Transition-proneness is a period of time when adolescents are more sensitive to the
influences around them (Jessor and Jessor, 1977). Deviant behavior, including drug
and alcohol use, are especially likely to happen during these sensitive times.
Transition-proneness is characterized by several things (Steinberg, 1993):
distance from school and relationships with the family
apathy
strong tolerance for the problem behavior
Personality Characteristics
Adolescents who display certain personality characteristics seem to be more prone
to developing substance abuse problems. According to Shedler and Block (1990),
these include:
impulsivity
depression
anger
achievement problems
Family Relationships
Adolescents who abuse drugs and alcohol tend to have parents who are extremely
permissive, meaning that they place very few demands on their child and give them
a lot of freedom. Parents that are neglectful or uninvolved are also putting their
adolescent at risk for drug and alcohol use (Baumrind, 1991). There are two other
factors that could put adolescents at risk of substance abuse. One is that many of
these adolescents with substance abuse problems come from families in which one
parent or both use drugs. In this way, the adolescents are exposed to the drug use
and made to think that it is okay. Second, the parents may not object to their
adolescent's use of drugs and therefore send a message that it is okay to use drugs
and alcohol.
Peer Relations
Finally, adolescents who use drugs are much more likely to have friends that also
use drugs. There are two reasons for this. First, the adolescent may be influenced
by these friends to try alcohol and drugs and to continue to use them. Second, the
adolescent may be drawn to these friends because of their common drug use.
Conclusions:
Although many adolescents experiment with drugs and alcohol, it is important to
keep in mind that only a small percentage of them actually abuse them (Steinberg,
1993). These risk factors are possible guidelines as to who will develop an abuse
problem. It is possible that those who have these risk factors present in their lives
will not develop a substance abuse problem. It is also possible that those who do
not have these risk factors present in their lives will
develop a substance abuse problem.
For additional information, visit these websites:
http://www.ocjp.ca.gov:80/drgabschl.html
http://www2.fcpi.org:80/fcpi/brochuresandpapers/underagealcohol96.html
The Family and Adolescent Drug and
Alcohol Use
Alison Wengel
The family plays an important role in the development of childrens' attitudes and
behaviors. Family influences are strongly associated with drug and alcohol use in
adolescents (Dielman, Leech, & Loveland-Cherry, 1995).
How does parental use influence adolescent drug and alcohol use?
Adolescents learn their drinking behaviors from watching and imitating their parents.
Parents who use drugs and alcohol are more likely to have adolescents who use
drugs and alcohol (Peterson, Hawkins, Abbott, & Catalano, 1994). Adolescents
who reported that their parents drank heavily had higher alcohol use in early
adolescence than those who had parents who did not drink heavily (Weinberg,
Dielman, Mandell, & Shope, 1994).
Relationship between parents and adolescent drug and alcohol
use(Halebsky, 1987):
82% of parents who drank had adolescents who also used alcohol
72% of parents who abstained had adolescents who also abstained
78% of parents that used marijuana had adolescents who were drug users
How does parental attitudes and norms influence adolescent drug and
alcohol use?
When parents' view drug and alcohol use as normal in their own lives there is a
higher rate of initiation, escalation, and continued use in those adolescents. Also
parents who are lenient about adolescent drug and alcohol use have adolescents
that are more likely to be users. Parental norms can be communicated indirectly to
adolescents through how parents involve their children in their own drug or alcohol
use. For example, letting them pour or serve alcoholic drinks has been found to
contribute to adolescent alcohol use (Peterson et al., 1994). Adolescents who had
never smoked marijuana reported that their parents would strongly disapprove if
they used marijuana. Those who did smoke marijuana were less likely to report that
their parents would disapprove of their marijuana use (Dielman et al., 1995).
How does parenting style influence adolescent drug and alcohol use?
The relationship between parents and adolescents also influences drug and alcohol
use. The quality of parental socialization is an important factor since parental
closeness and open communication has been found to discourage drug and alcohol
use (Barnes, Farrell, & Banerjee, 1994).
Parenting style factors associated with high drug and alcohol use in adolescents
includes (Peterson et al., 1994):
Few or inconsistent rewards for positive behavior
Unclear expectations for behavior
Inconsistent punishment
Poor monitoring of behavior
Low perceived parental love (Halebsky, 1987).
It is important for parents to discuss the negative aspects of drug and alcohol use
with their adolescents. Also parents should express their own views on drug and
alcohol use and explain what they expect from adolescents in regard to if they use
or not (Peterson et al., 1994).
For additional information:
A selected bibliography on information on substance use for parents:
http://www.arf.org/isd/bib/famadol.html
Communicating with teens about substance use
http://www.frii.com:80/~rmbsi/parent_child_about_drugs.html
Cigarettes and Adolescents
Jeffery Keyser
Introduction
Over the past several years our government has been pressured into taking on the
cigarette industry. Along with giving the FDA the power to regulate cigarettes, the
government has been concentrating on stopping tobacco companies from targeting
the adolescent population as customers. We have also seen a crack down on the
illegal sales of cigarettes to minors, previously an unenforced law. This paper will
give a brief overview of the relationship between cigarettes and adolescents.
What is the law?
States are required to adopt laws that prohibit the sale of tobacco to anyone under
18. All states are expected to enforce these laws by conducting random
compliance inspections (Jason et al., 1996). The goal for each state is to reduce
illegal sales to less than 20% and at the end of the year submit an annual report on
their efforts. The penalty for not complying with the government is the loss of
substance abuse funds. All these regulations are found in the Synar Amendment,
which was implemented in 1996.
How many adolescents smoke?
A study conducted in 1994 by Cummings gave these results:
over 2.7 million teenagers (age 12-18) smoke
teens smoke 516 million packs a year
255 million packs were sold to adolescents under the age of 18
the tobacco industry made about $94.8 million dollars in profit from illegal
sales
Why shouldn't adolescents smoke?
All this leads us to the questions of why is the government being pressured into
cracking down on illegal cigarette sales, what's the big deal about a teenager
smoking cigarettes. It all starts with this fact: over 400,000 Americans die every
year from smoking related diseases (Jason et al., 1996). Cigarettes seem to be
responsible for health problems in the lungs and heart, but most of these problems
occur after years and years of smoking. So most adolescents do not immediately
have any health problems caused by smoking. The problem is that the addictive
power of nicotine makes cigarette smoking the most common form of drug
addiction (Jason et al., 1996). It should not surprise us that 90% of adults began
smoking during their adolescent years (Jason et al., 1996). Adolescents shouldnÕt
smoke because starting now will most likely lead them to smoking for longer than
they might think. A longitudinal study by Pierce and Gilpin (1996) showed that an
adolescent who starts to smoke at either 16 or 17 will continue to smoke for 16
years if male and 20 years if female.
Another problem that may be associated with smoking, besides physical aliments, is
mental health. A study on adolescents done by Patton (1996) set out to see if
smoking is associated with depression and anxiety within this age group. Results
showed that while smoking may not cause depression or anxiety, it may be related
to being depressed. Teens may use smoking as a way of coping with depression or
anxiety because of itÕs so called soothing effects. Patton concluded smoking
almost seems like a symptom of anxiety or depression in a large number of
adolescents.
For Further Reading:
A good site for mor detailed informaiton and preventive programs is website of
Non-Smokers of America organization. The address is
www.no-smoke.org/ed-prog.htm1
Facts About Binge Drinking
Mary Hancock
What is binge drinking?
Binge Drinking is a very prevalent problem in American society, especially among
college students. "Binge" Drinking is defined for men as drinking five or more drinks
in a row in the past two weeks, and for women as drinking four or more drinks in a
row. "Frequent" binge drinking is defined as binge drinking three or more times in
the past two weeks (Harvard School of Public Health, 1993). Binging is associated
with higher risks of health problems, thus, binge drinking is the number one public
health hazard for the more than six million full-time college students in America
(Wechsler, 1995).
How frequent is binge drinking? (Harvard School of Public Health, 1993)
Binge drinking is widespread among American college campuses, 44% of
college students binge drink.
50% of college men and 37% of college women are classified as "binge
drinkers".
College students spend $5.5 billion each year on alcohol, more than they
spend on soda, tea, milk, juice, coffee, and books combined.
Stereotype of the college binge drinker (Wechsler, 1995)
Caucasian
having an extroverted and change-oriented personality
having a low grade point average
residing in a fraternity or sorority house
involved in athletics
indulging in binge drinking in high school
viewing parties as very important
having parents who were college educated
viewing religious activity as not very important
Consequences of binge drinking
having a hangover
doing something you later regretted
forgetting where you were or what you did
engaging in unplanned sexual activity
not using protection when you had sex
arguing with friends
damaging property
getting into trouble with campus or local police
getting hurt or injured
requiring medical treatment for an alcohol overdose
missing a class
getting behind in school work
ridding with a driver who was drunk
Long term binge drinking consequences (Rehring, 1997)
Premature Aging
Inability to Plan
Memory Lapses
Liver Problems
Death
Conclusion
Binge drinking is a large problem with very serious consequences. It affects
adolescent development, especially academic performance. If men and women
begin binge drinking during adolescence and continue this behavior over a lifetime it
will cause serious health consequences. This is why adolescents need to be
educated about binge drinking and the its effects.
References
Harvard School of Public Health. (1993).
www.jointogether.org/jto/issues/binge/bingefacts.htm
Harris, Aimee (1997). Binge Drinkers Risk Serious Health Problems. The
Daily Collegian.1-2.
Wechsler, D. (1995). Correlates of College Students Binge Drinking.
American Journal of Public Health. Vol. 85 921-926.
For Further Reading:
Binge Drinking http:// www.uhs.berkeley.edu/students/healthpromotion/binge.htm
Open Letter http://www.jointogether.org/jto/issues/binge/binge_facts.htm
Drinking: A Student's Guide http://www.glness.com/ndha/binge.html
Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention
c/o Educational Development Center
55 Chapel Street
Newton, MA 02158
Cost Issues Dealing with Alcoholism
Joseph E. Harbula
Financial Burdens:
The consumption of alcohol is a great health concern to our society. Alcohol abuse
is estimated to cost our economy over $100 billion annually (Holden 1987). This
figure includes medical treatment for cirrhosis of the liver, osteoporosis, ulcers,
heart disease, nervous system damage, and certain types of cancer such as breast
cancer. It includes the insurance and medical costs incurred by automobile
accidents resulting from drinking and driving. Each year approximately 3,300
adolescents are killed in alcohol-related car accidents and overall, 49 percent of
fatal crashes involving teenagers also involve alcohol (National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration, 1987). The total costs annually also include alcohol
treatment necessary to help people control their addiction. It includes the enormous
cost of labor that is lost when heavy drinkers are unable to come in to work.
Family Involvement:
The cost issues relating to adolescent alcoholism not only relate to financial burdens
on society but also the cost to the family of children with the addiction. Here are
several suggestions as presented by (Johnson, Carroll, 1987) which might help
reduce the cost of alcoholism on the family.
1) Create a home environment of warmth, acceptance, and concern about a young
person's problems, an environment in which troubles can be discussed before they
lead to greater difficulties. Having this kind of relationship with their parents can
help teenagers develop the psychological resilience needed to cope with life's
inevitable setbacks without turning to drugs or alcohol.
2)Know the early warning signs of teenage drug use. These include a reduced
interest in school work and in extracurricular activities, arriving late at school and
skipping classes, and the unexplained disappearance of liquor from the family liquor
cabinet. The adolescent may drop old friends and start spending time with new
ones who are never introduced to parents. The teenager may have mood changes,
argues explosively with parents, and denies the use of drugs or alcohol. Frequently,
drug abusers run into trouble with police, driving drunk, using false ID, or pilfering
money.
3)Seek help immediately for a drug user. Across the country there are hospitals,
clinics, groups, and programs designed to help teenagers with a drug or alcohol
problem. A state department of mental health, a local hospital, or a drug abuse
hotline can offer valuable advice.
Final Thought:
Often teenage drug abuse is more difficult to spot because it occurs only
occasionally and can be hidden from parents until tragedy occurs, often behind the
wheel of a car. Why teenagers continue to risk their lives in this way may have to
do with adolescent egocentrism, that is when adolescents first develop a sense of
their own uniqueness, they may get the mistaken impression that they are so
different from others they are not susceptible to the same fates. Many teenagers
therefore, take enormous risks, convinced that nothing terrible could possibly
happen to them. Intervention at a young age may curtail this behavior, however,
then and only then might the high cost issues either financial or family might show
change (Johnson, Carroll, 1987).
REFERENCES
Holden, C. (1987). Alcoholism and the medical cost crunch.
Johnson, T. and Carroll, G. (1986, March 17). Tale of three addictions: A
cheerleaders fall andrise. Newsweek Inc.
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (1987). Fatal accident reporting
system. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation.
For Further Reading
Ingalls, Z. (1983, January 19). Although drinking is widespread, student abuse of
alcohol is not rising, new study finds. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 9.
Schemeck, H.M. (1983, September, 2). Alcoholism tests back disease idea. New
York Times, A10.
Jessor, R., Jessor, S. (1977). Problem behavior and psycho social development: a
longitudinal study of youth. New York. Academic Press.
Marijuana
Kellie Shalters
Is marijuana a "gateway" drug?
Marijuana is an illicit drug and considered a "gateway" drug. This means that it's use
leads to the use of more serious drugs such as LSD, cocaine, and heroine. There is
much controversy about the claim that marijuana is a "gateway" drug because not
all adolescents who use marijuana advance to harder drugs. On the one hand, the
claim that marijuana causes use of harder drugs finds no support because more
important factors could be the cause, such as, personality and social class (Hanson
& Venturelli, 1995). On the other hand, support exists for marijuana as a "gateway"
drug. Of high school seniors who use crack, only 10% used it before first trying
marijuana (Kandel & Yamaguchi, 1993).
What percent of adolescents use marijuana?
Marijuana use is strongly related to age. Of thirteen and fourteen year-olds 6.2%
used marijuana in the past year and 3.2% used it in the past month. Of fifteen and
sixteen year-olds, 16.5% used it within the past year and 8.7% used it within the
past month. And, of seventeen and eighteen year-olds, 23.9% used it in the past
year and 13.8% in the past month (Hanson & Venturelli, 1995).
What causes marijuana use in adolescence?
Factors that place adolescents at risk for initiating marijuana use include (Dembo,
Schmeidler, Williams, Wothke, 1992):
genetic and family factors
community characteristics
peer relationships
psychological characteristics
What are the effects of marijuana?
Physiological Effects (Hanson & Venturelli, 1995)
serious damage to lungs
increased heart rate
interferes with sexual performance
alters mood , memory , and coordination and reproduction
Behavioral Effects (Hanson & Venturelli, 1995)
the abilities to perform complex tasks (i.e. driving) are strongly impaired
feelings of paranoia
feelings of euphoria
Psychological Effects (Dembo et al, 1992)
poorer physical and mental health
rebellious and tolerant of deviance
lower academic achievement
more involved in other delinquent behavior
experience greater anxiety
experience greater problems with parents
Conclusions:
Marijuana use is common in adolescence and may even lead to use of more serious
drugs. The causes of marijuana use in adolescence are influenced by many factors
including family and peer relationships. Also, not only does marijuana have serious
effects on an adolescent's body but it also effects their behavior and attitudes.
Teenager's Response to Drug and Alcohol
Awareness
Michael A. Pennella
The use of drugs and alcohol is on the rise, especially among the teenage crowd. A
lot has been done in past years to deter the use of these substances, although the
rate of use continues to grow. By taking a look at the manner in which teens
respond to awareness programs we can develop more effective programs in the
future. Lets take a look at some styles that work and others that don't.
What works
Studies have shown that straight facts are most effective when dealing with
teenagers. Teenagers are at a point in their lives where they are capable of making
intelligent, educated decisions regarding their own well being. Giving them the facts
and allowing them to make their own decision is very effective in drug prevention.
This gives them a felling of responsibility in the decision making process. With this
responsibility, they tend to approach the decision in a more mature manner
(Hawkins, 1992).
A program called D.A.R.E. has also show good results. D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse
Resistance Education) is a proactive attempt to address substance use by teaching
young people the skills necessary to recognize and resist pressure to experiment
with different types of drugs (http://www.open.org/nfatc/index5.htm).
Another way to fight the war on teenage drug use is by administering treatment
programs to drug offenders rather than mandatory minimum sentences. Treatment
programs reduce more drug consumption and crime than either prison sentences or
conventional law enforcement (http://www.open.org/nfatc/index5.htm).
What doesn't
Scare tactics, which try to scare the teen with bogus information, do not work. The
majority of the time the teen will discover the info to be invalid and will associate all
future info coming from such sources as also invalid. In doing this they will discredit
valuable information that would otherwise be helpful to them in making the right
decisions concerning drugs and alcohol.
"Just Say No" also has shown little effect on the war on drugs (Hawkins, 1992).
Teaching kids to just say no does not equip them with the necessary skills to react
to high-pressure, complicated situations.
With the constant rise of drug use in our communities it is important to educate our
children about the dangers of drugs and to equip them with the skills to make the
right decisions concerning drug and alcohol use.
References:
Hawkins, J. David (1992) Communities That Care, action for drug abuse
prevention.
Northwest Frontier Addiction Technology Transfer Center. Web site at:
http://www.open.org/nfatc/index5.htm
Penn State courses CN ED 420, HDFS 432, and HDFS 311.
For additional information:
Web links: Northwest Frontier Addiction Technology Transfer Center
http://www.open.org/nfatc/index5.htm
http://www.elks.org/drugs/communit.htm
Further reading: Hawkins, J. David (1992) Communities That Care, action
for drug abuse prevention.
Adolescent Delinquent Behavior: Violence
Stephanie Wolf
What are considered violent behaviors?
Laurence Steinberg defines violent crimes in his text Adolescence(fourth edition) as
the following:
Aggravated assault(an attack on another person for the purpose of inficting
severe injury, typically with a weapon)
Rape
Murder
What is the prevelance of violent crimes among adolescents?
One out of every six arrests for rape, murder, and assault involves a suspect
under the age of 18(Steinberg, 1996).
Since 1984 arrest rates for aggravated assault, murder, and nonegligent
manslaughter increased substantially among young people(Steinberg,1996).
What are the long term effects of adolescent violence?
Early adolescent delinquency usually results in the following:
becoming a chronic offender
commitng more serious and violent crimes
continuing this behavior as an adult
Later adolescent delinquency results in:
commits less serious crimes(such as breaking curfew)
involvement diminishes by early adulthood
Based on these findings on the long term effects of delinquent behavior it is clear to
see that the earlier these behaviors began the worse the implications may become in
the future. This is why we need to start early and begin peventing such activities by
providing youth with other alternatives and preventions.
Prevention and treatment of violent behaviors.
There is evidence that family-based interventions, such as parent training or family
therapy, may be more successful than interventions that focus on the individual
adolescent, but these programs tend to be extremely expensive and time
consuming. - In order to lower the rate of chronic antisocial behavior, which is a
precursor to violent crimes, we need mainly to prevent family disruption in early
family relationships and to head off early academic problems, througha combination
of family support and preschool intervention(Yoshikawa, 1994).
For More Information . . .
There has been a definite increase in the amount of crimes commited by youth; for
more information on this topic I recommend browsing this web site:
http://www.subcom/'shadp/Directories/vyg.htm/
Gangs and Juvenile Delinquency
Katie McNichol
What is a gang?
According to Saul Scheidlinger, PhD; a gang is defined as "an intimate social
gathering characterized by a high degree of close personal contact among
members, who share common values or standards of behavior. Largely an urban
phenomenon, the gang is a subculture whose interests and attitudes are typically
different from and sometimes in direct conflict with those of the larger society"
There are six elements to all gangs:
structured organization
identifiable leadership
territorial identification
continual association
specific purpose
involvement in illegal behavior(Parks1995).
Gangs typically are made up of adolescents with similar ethnic backgrounds, age
ranges from 9-24, lower socioeconomic status, predominately males, and are
located in urban areas.
What are the specific types of gangs?
There are three typical gang classifications:
Informal gangs: whose center of focus concerns consuming alcohol,
marijuana, and other drugs, as well as just having a good time. Only
occasionally do these gang types engage in criminal activity, and the extent of
it is mostly property damage.
Instrumental gangs: whose center of focus tends to revolve around
economic concerns and crime related to economic gain. These gangs act on
a higher level of delinquency compared to informal gangs. There tends to be
more frequent drug use, and individual members tend to sell drugs.
Predatory gangs: These gangs are highly organized and tend to be at the
top of the ladder when it comes to juvenile delinquency. They tend to
commit more serious crimes and revolve gang activity around the distribution
and sales of drugs(Huff,1989).
What types of crime do gangs commit?(Huff,1989)
Auto theft
Sale and distribution of drugs
Rape
Assault
Homicide
Robbery
Burglary
Important statistics regarding gangs(Parks,1995)
In 1995 there were an estimated 1439 gangs in the United States. The number of
members in those gangs totals over 1.5 million. Gangs are in approximately 2100
U.S. cities with populations greater than 10,000. Approximately one fifth of all
adolescent boys, in these cities, belong to a gang. It is important to note that gang
activity differs in each state, therefore making it difficult to report statistics on
specific gang activity. For information regarding a specific state, one should consult
a local library for specific government documents regarding juvenile crime rates.
For additional information:
Summary of a Police Department survey on gang activities
http://www.ncjrs.org/txtfiles/gcrime.txt
Summary of a research article on public perceptions of gang activity.
http://www.louisville.edu/edu/cayscd/paspring94/pryor.htm
Peer and School Influence on Juvenile
Delinquency
Renee Kresge
How do peers influence delinquency?
The number of delinquents within the respondent's immediate circle of friends plays
a large part in determining if the respondent will become involved in delinquent
behavior as well. As Warr(1993) suggests, recent, rather than early, friends have
the greatest effect on delinquecy. Adolescents who acquire delinquent friends
thereby lock themselves out of future friendships with "straight" kids through the
stigma of delinquency(Warr, 1993).
How do schools influence delinquency?
Classroom conduct problems and poor academic performance are also predictors
of later delinquency. The tasks presented by the school have long been recognized
as a major developmental hurdle for children and youth. Many writers have
suggested that the experience of school failure is an important determinant of
delinquent behavior. According to Clements(1988) the school setting is also the
major site for acquiring behavioral, social, and academic competencies that serve to
enhance adjustment and stabilize stressful life events.
Prevention and Treatment
A number of generalizations have been made about delinquency prevention and
intervention. Delinquency is a symptom of failed integration into mainstream
community structures(Clements, 1988). There are several points of focus that help
to alleviate this symptom. They are diversion and neighborhood programs,
family-based interventions, school-based interventions and assesment
strategies(Clements, 1988). In review of successful school-based behavioral
treatment programs Clements(1988) desribed a few common components. The
treatment focus is designed to enhance attendance and performance. One well
documented program included contingency contracting, point redemption, and a
reinforcement room(Clements). Another well known school-based intervention is
the PREP program. It includes programmed instruction in academic areas and
social skills training. Parents were instructed in child-management skills and
encouraged to become involved in school affairs(Clements).
Adolescent Delinquency and the Family
Stephanie Clawson
Many youths find it difficult to cope with adolescent period of development.
Thousands of them turn to drugs, alcohol or teen-age marriages. This may be the
child's means of escape from society and a reach for a sense of individual worth
and value.
What is the norm during adolescence?
It is normal for the family of an adolescent to be going through a time of turmoil and
stress. Other parents are feeling anxiety about their child also, check out this page:
http://www.familyeducation.com/. The pessimism about this time in a child's life
may be due to the changes that are taking place and not so much the onset of
adolescents. Parents must not think that their child will automatically become a
delinquent when he or she reaches a certain age. The facts are that approximately
three-fourths of families enjoy pleasant relations during adolescent years (Steinberg,
1990). The other one-forth of families who report unhappy relations usually have
experienced prior family problems.
Is delinquency caused by family factors?
Youths who are arrested for delinquent behaviors tend to come from families with
deficient childrearing or socialization practices, poor adolescent-parent relationships
and little family cohesiveness (Atwater, 1988). Some of the prevalent things found
in households with delinquent children are lack of house rules, lack of parental
supervision, lack of a rewards and punishment system (Atwater, 1988). One of the
single best predictors of delinquency is the lack of affectional ties between
adolescents and their parents. Family life affects the child but the child also affect
the family, delinquency effects are not mono-directional.
How families and their parenting style affect the delinquency of a child.
Adolescents thrive developmentally when the family environment is characterized
by warm relationships in which they are permitted to express their opinions and
become individuals (Steinberg, 1990). The type of parenting style that best fits this
description is authoritative parenting. Parents with an authoritative style have
children with better social skills and higher psychological health. Authoritative
parents put high demand on their children but also have high support which makes
for the optimal parenting (Steinberg, 1990). The other type of parenting such as
authoritarian, indulgent and neglected present problems to the adolescent. They
provide and unhealthy balance of demands and responsiveness which contributes to
the delinquent behavior of their child.
To Find Out More . . .
If you are reading this page you are already taking part in educational prevention.
Here are some other links that may be useful to you:
http://www.pageweavers.com/pal.html
http://youthchg.com
Grotevant, H. (1983). Adolescent development in the family. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Henggeler, S. (1989). Delinquency in adolescence. Beverly Hills: Sage
publications.
Lowe, G. (1993). Adolescent drinking and family life. Langhorne, PA:
Harwood Academic Publishers.
Mentoring Relationships With Adolescents
Maureen M. Snedden
What is mentoring?
Many of today's adolescents need to be mentored. Precisely what is mentoring?
What is involved and what are the fruits that can be expected? The insights of two
prominent workers in the field are important for our understanding of the concept of
mentoring.
Mentoring is sharing who you are, it is guiding a young person; it may be to
befriend someone different from you. It is living out in the relationship: I care, I will
be here for you, we are friends, you are special to me. Freedman remarked that it
would be ideal if our adolescents' lives "had environments that were mentor-rich
environments," but since this is often not the case we need to place mentors so that
needy adolescents can have a caring adult in their lives. (Freedman 1993).
Lefkowitz in his book Tough Change (1986) focused on the one-on-one caring
relationship between a concerned adult and an adolescent in need of help and
support. He found in his work with young people that "Again and again the same
pattern was repeated. The kid who managed to climb out of the morass of poverty
and social pathology was the kid who found somebody, usually in school,
sometimes outside, who helped them invent a promising future. In practical terms,
the presence of the understanding, concerned, yet demanding mentor transforms
the meaning and quality of education."
It is clear from Freedman, Lefkowitz and others that mentoring in simple terms is a
relationship between a faithful adult counselor-friend and the young person who for
many reasons stands virtually 'alone' in the world and is in need of the special,
personal support that faithful person can bring to his/her life.
Why did mentoring groups start? Can they help today as they did in the
past? Adolescents in the past did not have easy lives, and in fact at the turn of the
century in the United States many of our youth led very difficult, lonely lives. Many
were homeless and as a result ended up in the courts. Unfortunately the same is
true today. Different reasons, same scenario. The early mentor programs were
started to meet the needs of young people then. Big-Brother and/or Big-Sister
programs early on were developed to help them have a meaningful relationship with
an adult. A Big-Brother program was founded in New York City to meet the needs
of boys brought to Children's Court for offenses that could send them to a
non-rehabilitating reformatory. One boy avoided that fate when Ernest K. Coulter,
founder of the New York City Big-Brother organization, offered to find him a
mentor. Coulter approached the Mens Club of a church in New York and stated:
"There is only one possible way to save that youngster and that is to have some
earnest, true man volunteer to be his big brother, to look after him, help him to do
right, make the little chap feel that there is at least one human being in this great city
who takes a personal interest in him; who cares whether he lives or dies."
(Brieswinger, 1985). Mentoring an adolescent in 1997 is very much the same.
Help where help is needed.
Mentoring is not confined to addressing just one problem. It is an across-the-board
resolve to help the adolescent in any area where help is needed: problems at home,
problems stemming from not having a home, problems at school, with peers, on a
part-time 'ob, in short, with whatever troubles the adolescent may be having, be
they practical, emotional, physical, psychological, or even spiritual. In all of these
areas, the mentor will be there to advise, assist, to care, and to be a warm and
loving role-model in what is for the adolescent a cold, unyielding, sometimes
ununderstandable outside world.
No adolescent who needs to be in a mentoring relationship should have to be
without one.
A MENTORING RELATIONSHIP WITH AN ADOLESCENT...
BUILDS BRIDGES...
LENDS A HAND...
SHARES LOVE.
For additional information:
About Mentoring. http://www.mentorng.org/mentoring.html
Grandpa-Grandma Corps Home Page.
References:
Beiswinger, G.L. (1985). One to One: The Story of The Big Brothers/Big
Sisters of America. Philadelphia, PA: Winchell Company.
Freedman, M. (1993) The Kindness of Strangers. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Lefkowitz, B. (1986) Growing Up on Your Own in America. New York:
Free Press.
Williams, T., and Komblum, W. (1985) Growing Up Poor. New York:
Lexington Books.
To Read Further . . . About Delinquency
Bartollas, C. (1993). Juvenile Delinquency. (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company.
Empey, L. and Stafford, M. (1991). American Delinquency: Its Meaning
and Construction(3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Inc.
Lab, S. and Whitehead, J. (1990). Juvenile Justice: An Introduction.
Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Co.
Stattin, H. & Magnusson, D., (1995). Onset of official delinquency: Its
co-occurence in time with education, behavioral, and interpersonal
problems. British Journal of Criminology, 35,438-445.
Steinberg, L., (1996). Adolescence, 4th Ed., New York: McGrawhill Inc.,
506-509.
Wicks-Nelson, R., & Israel, A. C., (1997). Behavior Disorders of
Childhood, 3rd Ed., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
195-199.
About The Juvenile Justice System
Haskell, M.R., Yablonsky, L. (1981). Crime and Delinquency. Chicago, IL:
Rand McNally & Company.
Davidson, W.S., Redner, r., Amdur, R.L., & Mitchell, C.M. (1990).
AlternativeTreatments for Troubled Youth. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Shichor, D., Kelly, D.H. (1980). Critical Issues in Juvenile Delinquency.
Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Whitehead, J.T., Lab, S.P. (1990). Juvenile Justice. Cincinnati, OH:
Anderson Publishing Co.
Fabricant, Michael. Deinstitutionalizing Delinquent Youth. Cambridge:
Schankman Publishing Co., 1980.
Joseph, Janice. Black Youths, Delinquency, and Juvenile Justice.
Westport: Praeger Publishers, 1995.
Singer, Simon I. Recriminalizing Delinquency. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1996.
Thornton, William E. Delinquency and Justice. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992.
About Substance Use
Dusek, D.E. and Girdano, D.A. (1993). Drugs. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Hanson, G. and Venturelli, P.J. (1995). Drugs and Society. Jones and
Bartlett Publishers.
Krivanek, J.A. (1982). Drug Problems, People Problems. George Allen &
Unwin.
Milhorn, H.T. (1994). Drug and Alcohol Abuse. Plenum Press.
About Risk Factors
Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent
competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 56-95.
Jessor, R., and Jessor, S. (1977). Problem Behavior and Psychosocial
Development: A Longitudinal Study of Youth. New York: Academic Press.
Shedler, J., and Block, J. (1990). Adolescent drug use and psychological
health: A longitudinal inquiry. American Psychologist, 45, 612-630.
Steinberg, L. (1993). Adolescence. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
About Violence
Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Prevention as cumulative protection: Effects of early
family support and education on chronic delinquency and it's risks.
Psychological Bulletin, 115, 28-54.
Steinberg, L.(1996). Adolescence, fourth edition.
About Peer and School Influences
**Clements, C. B. (1988). Delinquency Prevention and Treatment. Criminal
Justice and Behavior,15,286-305.
Jenkins, P. H. (1995). School Delinquency and Social Commitment.
Sociology of Education,68,221-237.
Sander, D. (1991). Focus on Teens in Trouble. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO, Inc.
Vondracek, F. W., & Corneal, S. (1995). Strategies for Resolving
Individual and Family Problems. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing
Company.
**Warr, M. (1993). Age, Peers, and Delinquency. Criminology,31,17-40.
Warr, M. (1993). Parents, Peers, and Delinquency. Social
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About Family Influences
Atwater, E. (1988). Adolescence. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
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225-276).
Barnes, G. M., Farrell, M. P., & Banerjee, S. (1994). Family influences on
alcohol abuse and other problem behavior among black and white
adolescents in a general population sample. Journal of Research on
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Dielman, T. E., Leech, S. L., & Loveland-Cherry, C. (1995). Parents' and
childrens' reports of parenting practices and parent and child alcohol use.
Drugs and Society, 8 (3-4), 83-101.
Halebsky, M. A. (1987). Adolescent alcohol and substance abuse: Parent
and peer effects. Adolescence, 22 (88), 961-967.
Peterson, P. L., Hawkins, J. D., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (1994).
Disentangling the effects of parental drinking, family management, and
parental alcohol norms on current drinking by black and white adolescents.
Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4 (2), 203-227.
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About Gangs
Huff, R. C. (1989). Youth gangs. Crime and Delinquency, 35 524-537.
Parks, C. P. (1995). Gang behavior in the schools. Educational Psychology
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Scheidlinger, S. PhD. (1994). A commentary on adolescent group violence.
Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 25 3-11.
This site was produced by students taking HDFS 433: The Transition to Adulthood and
HDFS 239: Adolescent Development at the Pennsylvania State University. Feedback can be
sent to the individual authors or to Nancy Darling (ndarling@psu.edu).
Last updated 3/8/01.